Original Source Material

Student Version

Content could be presented in a variety of formats via multimedia. Dynamic processes could be illustrated. Content in the form of text, still pictures, video, sound, graphics, or animations could be digitally or analogically encoded and stored in electronic, magnetic, and optical technologies. This encoded information could be transmitted literally around the world in a matter of seconds.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

With the rapid advance in information technologies, people around the world can access information quickly. Information takes the form of text, still pictures, video, sound, graphics, or animations, which are stored and transferred electronically through these computational technologies.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Original Source Material

Student Version

To summarize, the elaboration model ofinstruction starts by presenting knowledge at a very general or simplified level in the form of a special kind of overview. Then it proceeds toadd detail or complexity in “layers” across the entire breadth of the content of the course (or curriculum), one layer at a time, until the desired level of detail or complexity is reached.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). The elaboration theory: Guidance for scope and sequence decisions. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 425-453). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

They soon switched to a model based on the elaboration theory (Reigeluth, 1999). Using this approach, the game would begin with a level that offered the simplest version of the whole task (the epitome); subsequent levels would become increasingly more complex–an approach common to videogames–with opportunities for review and synthesis.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). The elaboration theory: Guidance for scope and sequence decisions. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 425-453). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Original Source Material

Student Version

I accept the point that whenever learning occurs, some medium or mix of media must be present to deliver instruction. However, if learning occurs as a result of exposure to any media, the learning is caused by the instructional method embedded in the media presentation. Method is the inclusion of one of a number of possible representations of a cognitive process or strategy that is necessary for learning but which students cannot or will not provide for themselves.

References:
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational technology research and development, 42(2), 21-29.

Media do not influence learning. Learning takes place because of the instructional methods represented in the medium which are used, rather than medium itself. It is the instructional methods which influence learning.

References:
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational technology research and development, 42(2), 21-29.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Science classrooms offer at least five ways to individualize and to enhance students’learning using games and simulations beyond what is possible in informal settings. First, teachers can assign students to teams based on detailed knowledge of learners’ intellectual and psychosocial characteristics. Second, in contrast to relatively unguided learning in contexts outside of school, science teachers can alter their classroom instruction and support based on the feedback educational games and simulations provide. Third, science games and simulations are adaptable to students with special needs, allowing them to be mainstreamed in science classrooms. Fourth, educational games and simulations can prepare students to take full advantage of real world field trips in science classrooms. Fifth, teachers through their knowledge of students can relate virtual experiences in science games and simulations to what is happening in the real world or in their personal lives.

References:
Dede, C. (2009). Learning context: Gaming, gaming simulations, and science learning in the classroom. Paper commissioned for the National Research Council Workshop on Gaming and Simulations, October 6-7, Washington, DC. Retrieved from: http://www7.nationalacademies.org/
bose/Dede_Gaming_CommissionedPaper. pdf

According to Dede (2009), different games can be assigned and used based on students’ characteristics. Information about student performance when playing games can help science teachers plan subsequent classroom activities. Games also can be utilized for students with special needs, which can be selected to match their ability levels.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Computer-mediated learning products-whether they are guided practice exercises, tutorials, simulations, games, hypertext, multimedia or Web documents merely carry out the directives (rules. programs, scripts. mark-ups) from a human tutor who originally designed the particular instructional or informational system and its subject matter. A computer system has no idea of the meanings of the messages (i.e., groups of “signs”) being sent back and forth between the tutor and students. A computer system is a medium which conveys those human messages.

References:
Frick, T. (1997). Artificially intelligent tutoring systems: what computers can and can’t know.Journal of Educational Computing Research, 16(2), 107-124. Web supplement. [R&T]

The role of a computer-based instructional system is to deliver messages to learners. Those messages originated from a human tutor who developed the instruction. Computer systems do not understand these messages which comprise the instruction, student responses, and feedback during the learning process. A computer is merely a conduit for the exchange of messages between student and teacher. A computer system has no idea of the meanings of the messages.

References:
Frick, T. (1997). Artificially intelligent tutoring systems: what computers can and can’t know.Journal of Educational Computing Research, 16(2), 107-124. Web supplement. [R&T]

Original Source Material

Student Version

APT was compared with numerous extant methodologies, including the linear models approach and event history analysis. The fundamental difference between APT and these other approaches is that no particular mathematical model is assumed in APT. In APT a model is viewed simply as a temporal pattern, whereas in most other approaches parameters of a mathematical model are estimated from data in which variables are measured separately. Moreover, in APT probabilities of temporal patterns are estimated by relative frequency and duration.

References:
Frick, T. (1990). Analysis of Patterns in Time (APT): A Method of Recording and Quantifying Temporal Relations in Education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

In this study, Frick (1990) clarified the distinction between statistical linear models and Analysis of Patterns in Time (APT). Compared to the linear models approach (which includes particular mathematical models), APT is a straightforward way to create temporal maps and analyze them for recurring patterns of events. Moreover, in APT probabilities of temporal patterns are estimated by relative frequency and duration of those events.

References:
Frick, T. (1990). Analysis of Patterns in Time (APT): A Method of Recording and Quantifying Temporal Relations in Education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Teacher’s professional use of technology involves preparation for various classroom activities; such as, preparing instructional materials, material, communicating or collaborating with peers, students and their parents, locating digital resources, and creating lesson plans. When technology is used for instructional delivery, the teacher or students can use it. Teachers can present instruction by means of a projector or students may use computer-assisted learning applications such as drill and practice, tutorials, and simulations. technology as a tool, involves student use of basic software applications to extend their abilities to solve problems, create products, or communicate and share their perspectives with each other.

References:
Inan, F. A., & Lowther, D. L. (2010). Factors affecting technology integration in K-12 classrooms: a path model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(2), 137-154.

Technology offers a variety of rich opportunities available to teachers and students. According to Inan and Lowther (2010), there are three main purposes to use technology in schools: (a) technology for teachers to prepare instructional activities, plans, materials, and resources; (b) technology for instructional delivery for teachers and students; (c) technology as a learning tool for both teachers and students. Although technology provides a number of advantages for teaching and learning, teachers who try to integrate technology in their classrooms have encountered many obstacles that hinder potential benefits of use of technology.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The technological tools available today for creating computer-based learning materials are incredibly more powerful than those introduced just a few years ago. We can make our own movies with camcorders in our homes; we can publish our own books. Soon teachers and students will be able to use computer-video technology to produce their own learning materials. All it takes is time, know-how, and some funds.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Frick (1991) claimed that computers would become so powerful that K-12 educators and students would able to produce their own multimedia and Web-based learning materials.  He further predicted that they would just need to take the time required to learn to use the authoring tools and related technologies such as digital cameras and camcorders.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Original Source Material

The technological tools available today for creating computer-based learning materials are incredibly more powerful than those introduced just a few years ago. We can make our own movies with camcorders in our homes; we can publish our own books. Soon teachers and students will be able to use computer-video technology to produce their own learning materials. All it takes is time, know-how, and some funds.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Computers are so powerful that K-12 educators and students are now able to produce their own multimedia and Web-based learning materials.  They just need to take the time required to learn to use the authoring tools and related technologies such as digital cameras and camcorders.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The concept of systems is really quite simple. The basic idea is that a system has parts that fit together to make a whole; but where it gets complicated – and interesting – is how those parts are connected or related to each other. There are many kinds of systems: government systems, health systems, military systems, business systems, and educational systems, to name a few.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

The fundamental idea of systems, such as corporations and schools, is actually very simple. Each system has components which interact. What is important is how those components are connected together.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.