Question 1: Describe the highlights in the development of the psychology of women. Question 2: Discuss research findings regarding benevolent and hostile sexism across countries. Question 3: The t

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Question 1: Describe the highlights in the development of the psychology of women.

Question 2: Discuss research findings regarding benevolent and hostile sexism across countries.

Question 3: The text presents two explanations for the finding that people more negatively evaluate males who engage in cross-gender behavior than females who engage in cross-gender behavior. Describe and discuss each of these explanations and present a research finding consistent with it.

Question 4: What causes girls’ self-esteem to drop in adolescence? Why do African American girls remain more self-confident than White girls?

Each question should be at least 2 to 3 paragraphs with proper citation and apa Ive attached some of the book


https://www.google.com/books/edition/Women_s_Lives/_SA6DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PP1&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Question 1: Describe the highlights in the development of the psychology of women. Question 2: Discuss research findings regarding benevolent and hostile sexism across countries. Question 3: The t
Summary Chapter 1 Introduction to the Psychology of Women DEFINITIONS: SEX AND GENDER • Sex refers to the classification of females and males based on biological factors. Gender re- fers to social expectations of roles and behav- iors for females and males. WOMEN AND MEN: SIMILAR OR DIFFERENT? • The similarities approach (beta bias) argues that women and men are basically alike in their behaviors and that any differences are a product of socialization. • The differences approach (alpha bias) empha- sizes that women and men are different and that these differences are biologically based. FEMINISM • Liberal, cultural, socialist, radical, and women of color feminism all posit that women are disadvantaged relative to men. They differ in their assumptions about the sources of this inequality. HISTORY OF WOMEN IN PSYCHOLOGY • For many years, women attained few leader – ship positions and awards in the APA, but gains have been made in recent years. • Women’s contributions to psychology have often been overlooked or ignored, but that situation is improving. HISTORY OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN • In the early years of psychology, women were viewed as inferior to men and their experi- ences were rarely studied. • Early women psychologists carried out research that challenged the assumptions of female inferiority. • In the 1970s, the psychology of women emerged as a separate field of study. • In recent years, research on diverse groups of women has increased and new theoretical models have been developed. STUDYING THE PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN • Psychological research is not value free. Throughout most of its history, psychology did not pay much attention to the experiences of girls and women in either the topics investi- gated or the participants studied. • Since 1970, there has been an increase in research focus on females; however, most of this research has been carried out on White, middle-class, heterosexual, able-bodied women. • Generalizing results based on one type of par- ticipant to other types of people can lead to inaccurate conclusions. • The researcher’s theoretical perspective influ- ences the hypothesis examined in the research, which in turn affects the type of information learned from the research. • The measures used to study the research topic can influence the findings of the research. • Due to publication bias, published studies are more likely to present gender differences than gender similarities. • Very few studies use blatantly biased gender language, but a more subtle bias can be de- tected in the use of nonparallel terms for com- parable female and male behaviors. • Some feminists advocate the use of traditional objective, quantitative research methods, while others favor qualitative procedures. • There are several principles that characterize most feminist research. • The narrative approach and meta-analysis are two methods of integrating results of several studies on the same topic. • Meta-analysis is a statistical method that pro- vides a measure of the magnitude of a given difference, known as the effect size. THEMES IN THE TEXT • Three themes are prominent in this text. • First, psychology must examine the inter- secting identities and experiences of diverse groups of women. Websites Feminism feminist.com http://www.feminist.com/ https://femwoc.com• Second, the greater organizational and inter- personal power of men compared to women negatively shapes and limits women’s expe- riences. Women of color, poor and work- ing-class women, sexual minority women, and women with disabilities experience ad- ditional power inequities, with cumulative effects. • Third, gender is socially constructed; it is shaped by social, cultural, and societal values. If You Want to Learn More Brisolara, S., Seigart, D., & SenGupta, S. (Eds.). (2014). Feminist evaluation and research: Theory and practice. New York: Guilford. Davidson, M. del G. (2017). Black women, agency, and the new Black feminism. New York: Routledge. Davis, D. & Craven, C. (2016). Feminist ethnography: Thinking through methodologies, challenges, and possi- bilities. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Disch, L. & Hawkesworth, M. (Eds.). (2016). The Oxford handbook of feminist theory. New York: Oxford University Press. Harnois, C.E. (2013). Feminist methods in survey research. Los Angeles: Sage. Hesse-Biber, S.N. (2013). Feminist research practice: A primer. Los Angeles: Sage. Holgersson, U. (2017). Class: Feminist and cultural per – spectives. New York: Routledge. Jackson, S.A. (Ed.). (2014). Routledge international hand- book of race, class, and gender. New York: Routledge. Launius, C. & Hassel. H. (2015). Threshold concepts in women’s and gender studies: Ways of seeing, thinking, and knowing. New York: Routledge. McCann, C. & Kim, S. (2017). Feminist theory reader: Local and global perspectives. New York: Routledge. Phellas, C.N. (2012). Researching nonheterosexual sexual- ity. New York: Routledge. Roberts, T.-A., Curtin, N., & Duncan, L.E. (Eds.). (2016). Feminist perspectives on building a better psy- chology of gender. New York: Springer. Rosenblum, K. & Travis, T.-M. (2015). The meaning of difference: American constructions of race and ethnicity, sex and gender, social class, sexuality, and disability (7th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Education. Rothenberg, P.S. (2016). Race, class, and gender in the United States (10th ed.). New York: Worth. Sprague, J. (2016). Feminist methodologies for critical re- searchers. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Tong, R.M. (2013). Feminist thought: A more comprehen- sive introduction (4th ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview. Zinn, M.B. & Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. (2016). Gender through the prism of difference (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Question 1: Describe the highlights in the development of the psychology of women. Question 2: Discuss research findings regarding benevolent and hostile sexism across countries. Question 3: The t
STEREOTYPES OF FEMALES AND MALES• Based on the tendency to sort others into gender categories, people assume that certain characteristics, behaviors, and roles are more representative of females and others of males. These are called gender stereotypes. • Stereotypes vary according to the ethnicity of the person holding the stereotype and the age, ethnicity, social class, sexual orienta- tion, and ableness of the target person. • According to social role theory, because peo- ple associate females with the domestic role and males with the employment role, female stereotypes tend to center on communion and male stereotypes on agency. • Women who choose to be called “Ms.” or who use a nontraditional name after marriage are perceived as more agentic and less com- munal than women who prefer conventional titles of address. SEXISM • Large numbers of women have experienced either minor or major sexist incidents. • Several different forms of sexism have been proposed by scholars. Modern sexism is a sub- tle form of sexism, based on egalitarian values combined with underlying negative feelings toward women. Ambivalent sexism includes both hostile and benevolent attitudes. REPRESENTATION OF GENDER IN THE MEDIA • Females are underrepresented in the media. • Certain groups of women are particularly underrepresented, including ethnic minority women, older women, and sexual minority women. • The stigma of aging is greater for women than men. This double standard is based on soci- ety’s emphasis on youthful physical beauty for women. • Although the media do depict women in occupational roles, television features few women who successfully combine family and work roles. • Similarly, various media present messages consistent with the importance of the do- mestic role for women and the provider role for men. • Many forms of media portray males as more agentic than females and show females as being relationship oriented. • Media images emphasize the importance to females of physical attractiveness and sexual- ity. • The media both reinforce and contribute to stereotypes of gender. REPRESENTATION OF GENDER IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE • Numerous English language practices, includ- ing using the masculine generic, spotlighting, and diminutive suffixes for female terms, are based on the assumption that the male is nor- mative. • Other practices that deprecate women include the use of parallel terms, childlike terms, ani- mal and food terms, and sexual terms. • The differential treatment of females and males in language both reflects and helps shape gender images. SummaryChapter 2 Cultural Representation of Gender If You Want to Learn More Armstrong, C.L. (Ed.). (2013). Media disparity: A gen-der battleground. Lanham, MD: Lexington. Bates, L. (2016). Everyday sexism: The project that inspired a worldwide movement. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Blue, M.G. (2017). Girlhood on the Disney Channel: Branding, celebrity, and femininity. New York: Routledge. DeFrancisco, D.P., et al. (2014). Gender in communi- cation: A critical introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dines, G. & Humez, J.M. (2015). Gender, race and class in media (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Gunter, B. (2014). Media and the sexualization of child- hood. New York: Routledge. Hedenborg, S. & Pfister, G. (Eds.). (2017). Gender, media, sport. New York: Routledge. Hodgson, D. (2016). The gender, culture, and power reader. New York: Oxford University Press. Holstein, M. (2015). Women in late life: Critical perspectives on gender and age. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Hurd Clarke, L. (2011). Facing age: Women growing older in an anti-aging culture. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Krijnen, T. & Van Bauwel, S. (2015). Gender and media: Representing, producing, consuming. New York: Routledge. Moseley, R., et al. (Eds.) (2017). Television for women: New directions. New York: Routledge. Sales, N.J. (2016). American girls: Social media and the secret lives of teenagers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Segal, L. (2013). Out of time: The pleasure and perils of aging. London: Verso. Trier-Bienick, A. & Leavy, P. (Eds.). (2014). Gender and pop culture: A text-reader. Rotterdam: Sense. Websites The Media Media Watch http://www.mediawatch.com Representation of Gender in Language Gender-Neutral Language http://dir.yahoo.com/society_and_culture/gender/ gender_neutral_language/
Question 1: Describe the highlights in the development of the psychology of women. Question 2: Discuss research findings regarding benevolent and hostile sexism across countries. Question 3: The t
Summary GENDER SELF-CONCEPT• Gender self-concept includes gender identity and gender attitudes. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT • Prenatal sex differentiation is a multistage process. The joining of the sex chromosomes at conception is followed by the differentia- tion of the gonads, the development of the internal and external reproductive organs, and the organization of the hypothalamus. • After the gonads develop, the presence or absence of androgens influences the develop- ment of the reproductive organs and the brain. • Estrogens appear to play a role in female development. MULTIPLE GENDERS • Many non-Western cultures recognize mul- tiple genders. Western cultures typically rec- ognize only two. INTERSEXUALITY • Some individuals experience variations in their prenatal development known as intersexuality. • Turner syndrome is a chromosomal disorder in which the individual has a single X chro- mosome. These individuals are raised as girls and have female gender expectations, but no sex glands or prenatal estrogen. • Genetic females with CAH are usually reared as girls, although they have a partial or com- plete masculinization of their external genitals. • Genetic males with the androgen-insensitivity syndrome have feminized external genitals and are reared as girls. • Genetic males with a 5 alpha-reductase defi- ciency experience a female-to-male body transformation at puberty. • Studies of intersexuals provide mixed evidence regarding the relative influence of prenatal biological factors and the gender of rearing on nonsexual gender-related attributes, gender identity, and sexual orientation. THEORIES OF GENDER TYPING • Psychoanalytic theory proposes that gender typing stems from the child’s identification with the same-gender parent, a process that occurs when the child resolves the Oedipus complex. For boys, the resolution stems from fear of castration by the father. For girls, it stems from the realization that she will never possess her father. • Social learning theory proposes that children acquire gender behaviors via imitation of same-gender models and positive reinforce- ment of their own gender-consistent behav- iors. Cognitive social learning theory stresses the added role of cognition. • Cognitive developmental theory contends that once children attain gender constancy, they are motivated to behave in gender- appropriate ways. Thus, they actively seek out the rules that characterize female behav- ior and male behavior. They then engage in gender-consistent behaviors because it enables them to competently adjust to the social environment. • Gender schema theory proposes that children develop an interrelated set of ideas about gen- der. They learn the societal norms and prac- tices that signify the importance of gender. They then organize the social world on the basis of gender and guide their own actions accordingly. GENDER-RELATED TRAITS • On the basis of their gender-related traits, individuals can be categorized as feminine, masculine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. • Research has shown an increase in masculinity and androgyny in women over time. • Masculinity is related to psychological adjust- ment. • Androgyny was once considered to be highly desirable, but recently feminist scholars have criticized it. Chapter 3 Gender Self-Concept and Gender Attitudes If You Want to Learn More Amato, V. (2016). Intersex narratives: Shifts in the represen-tation of intersex lives in North American literature and pop culture. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript-Verlag. Angello, M. & Bowman, A. (2016). Raising the transgen- der child: A complete guide for parents, families, and caregivers. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press. Davis, G. (2015). Contesting intersex: The dubious diagnosis. New York: Hachette Books. Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Sex/gender: Biology in a social world. New York: Routledge. Feder, E.K. (2014). Making sense of intersex: Changing ethical perspectives in biomedicine. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Jones, T. (2016). Policy and gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgen- der, and intersex students. New York: Springer. Jordan-Young, R.M. (2011). Brain storm: The flaws in the science of sex differences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Nutt, A.E. (2016). Becoming Nicole: The transformation of an American family. New York: Penguin. Swartz, W. (2015). Two different worlds I’ve lived in: The true story of being intersex. Author. Van Lisdonk, J. (2014). Living with intersex: DSD. Amsterdam: Netherlands Institute of Social Research. Villoria, H. (2017). Born both: An intersex life. New York: Hachette Books. Yarhouse, M.A. (2015). Understanding gender dysphoria: Navigating transgender issues in a changing culture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Websites Gender Identity https://www.genderspectrum.org/quick-links/ understanding-gender/ Women’s Studies Links http://dir.yahoo.com/health/diseases_and_ conditions/intersexuality GENDER ATTITUDES • Gender attitudes are multidimensional. • College students have less traditional beliefs about the value of the employment role for women but more traditional views about the combination of women’s employment and family roles. • Across countries women hold more egalitarian gender attitudes than men. • Among Whites, women are generally more nontraditional in their beliefs than men are. • Among women, Blacks hold more traditional views about domestic responsibilities than Whites, but have more nontraditional views about the combination of women’s employ- ment and family roles. • The roles of Latina/o women and men have become more egalitarian over time, but Latinas have more traditional views than Black and White women. • The gender-related behaviors and roles of Native American women vary greatly across tribes and in several societies increased accul- turation has been accompanied by greater male dominance. • Traditional gender attitudes are linked to being older, more religious, less educated, of lower social class, politically conservative, and authoritarian. • College women and men associate more advan- tages with being male than with being female. • Males, compared to females, are more negatively evaluated for engaging in cross-gender behavior.
Question 1: Describe the highlights in the development of the psychology of women. Question 2: Discuss research findings regarding benevolent and hostile sexism across countries. Question 3: The t
Summary CHILDREN’S KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEFS ABOUT GENDER• Children are able to distinguish females and males as early as 3–4 months of age. • By age 2 or 3, they can label their own gender and show some awareness of gender-typical objects, activities, and occupations. • Awareness of gender stereotypes for person- ality traits emerges later in the preschool years. • Stereotypes become more flexible after age 7. GENDER-RELATED ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS • Preschool girls and boys are similar in their motor skills. • Differences favoring boys become more pro- nounced in adolescence as a result of both environmental and biological factors. • Participation in sports is associated with posi- tive traits in females. Their participation has soared since the passage of Title IX. • By age 3, gender differences in toy choices and activities are well established. • Gender segregation, the preference for same-gender children, emerges by age 3 and increases during childhood. INFLUENCES ON GENDER DEVELOPMENT • Both parents, but fathers more than mothers, encourage gender-typical toys, play activities, and chore assignments for their children. • Parents talk more to their daughters, give them less autonomy, and encourage their pro- social behaviors. • Maternal employment is associated with less stereotyped gender-related concepts and pref- erences in sons and daughters. • Older siblings influence the gender develop- ment of younger siblings. • Boys receive more attention from teachers than girls do. They are more likely to be called on, praised, and criticized constructively. • Girls are also shortchanged in school textbooks. • Children exert strong pressures on each other to engage in gender-typical behavior. • Boys are viewed more negatively than girls when they engage in cross-gender activity. • Children who are heavy television viewers are more aware of gender stereotypes. • Exposure to characters who show nontraditional behaviors reduces children’s gender stereotypes. PUBERTY • During puberty, sexual organs mature and secondary sex characteristics appear. • Menarche is a major event of puberty. • Girls who mature early tend to adjust less eas- ily than late-maturing girls. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE • Adolescent girls and boys show similar pat- terns of identity development, focusing on both occupational choices and interpersonal relationships. • Girls begin to show lower self-esteem than boys in early adolescence, and the gender gap widens during adolescence. Explanations include girls’ dissatisfaction with their physical appearance, shortchanging of girls in school, and girls’ “losing their voice.” Black girls have higher self-esteem than other girls. • Early adolescents show an increasing diver- gence in gender-related behaviors and atti – tudes, known as gender intensification. • Adolescent girls, compared to boys, have a more negative body image and are more likely to diet. Cultural pressures for slimness are partly responsible. Chapter 4 Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence Websites Sports Empowering Women in Sports http://www.feminist.org/sportshttp://www.girlpower.gov http://www.girlsinc.org/ http://www.nedic.ca/ If You Want to Learn More Bailey, J. (2016). Sex, puberty, and all that stuff: A guide to growing up. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Publishers. Belgrave, F.Z. (2011). African-American girls: Reframing per- ceptions and changing experiences. New York: Springer. Bryan, J. (2012). From the dress-up corner to the senior prom: Navigating gender and sexual diversity. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Garcia, L. (2012). Respect yourself, protect yourself: Latina girls and sexual identity. New York: New York University Press. Greene, S. (2015). The psychological development of girls and women (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Greenspan, L. & Deardorff, J. (2014). The new puberty: How to navigate early development in today’s girls. Emmaus, PA: Rodale. Grogan, S. (2017). Body image: Body dissatisfaction in men, women and children. New York: Routledge. Kilpatrick, H. & Joiner, W. (2012). The drama years: Real girls talk about surviving middle school—bullies, brands, body image, and more. New York: Free Press. MacDonald, F. (2016). Childhood and tween girl culture. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Morris, M.W. (2016). Pushout: The criminalization of Black girls in school. New York: The New Press. Richardson, N. & Locks, A. (2014). Body studies: The basics. New York: Routledge. Wainwright, P.A. (2015). Growing courageous girls: How to raise authentic, strong, and savvy girls in today’s mixed-up culture. Hanover, PA: Chaucer Press. Wardy, M.A. & Newsom, S.S. (2014). Redefining girly: How parents can fight the stereotyping and sexualizing of girlhood from birth to tween. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Zurbriggen, E.L. & Roberts, T.-A. (Eds.). (2013). The sexualization of girls and girlhood: Causes, consequences, and resistance. New York: Oxford University Press.
Question 1: Describe the highlights in the development of the psychology of women. Question 2: Discuss research findings regarding benevolent and hostile sexism across countries. Question 3: The t
Summary GENDER-RELATED SOCIAL BEHAVIORS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS• Girls and boys are more alike than different in their social behaviors and personality traits. Gender differences, when found, are generally small. • Boys are more physically aggressive than girls whereas girls are more likely to use relational aggression. • Girls and boys are similar in prosocial behavior, but the few observed differences favor girls. • Females are somewhat more easily influenced than males in certain situations. • Girls are more likely than boys to express their emotions and report feeling empathy. Whether this reflects actual differences in emotionality or in the willingness to report feelings remains an open question. • Men are more narcissistic than women. • Women, compared to men, are more agree- able, neurotic, and gregarious but less assertive. • Research does not support Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s claim of gender differences in the underlying basis of moral reasoning. Both females and males show caring and justice concerns in resolving moral conflicts. COMMUNICATION STYLE • Gender differences in verbal communication include males’ greater talkativeness and intru- sive interruptions and females’ greater affiliative interruptions and their use of speech character- ized as tentative. When responding to friends’ troubles, women are more likely than men to give support and less likely to give advice. • Both college women and men like to talk to their friends about the other gender. However, women’s conversations focus on interpersonal issues more than do men’s. • Females smile and gaze at their conversational partner more than males do. They are also better able to interpret nonverbal messages. These differences might reflect the communal socialization of females. Another possibility is that women’s ability to understand others is an adaptive mechanism that stems from their lower societal status. • Explanations for these gender differences focus on females’ interpersonal orientation and the gender imbalance in power. GENDER COMPARISON OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES • Females and males do not differ in general intelligence but show some differences in cer- tain cognitive skills. • Girls have a slight advantage in verbal skills beginning in infancy. Girls outperform boys in reading, writing, and speech production and are less likely to have reading problems. • On visual–spatial tests, gender differences favoring boys are greatest in mental rota- tion, less in spatial perception, and smaller or absent in spatial visualization. • Girls are better than boys in mathematics computation skills and get better grades in mathematics courses. Boys are better at prob- lem solving starting in mid-adolescence and perform better on standardized mathematics tests. These differences have been decreasing. • Biological explanations for gender differences in cognitive skills focus on genetics, hor- mones, and brain structure or organization. • Environmental explanations include differen- tial socialization of girls and boys by parents and teachers, gender typing of activities as feminine or masculine, gender differences in attitudes toward various cognitive skills, and stereotype threat. Chapter 5 Gender Comparisons If You Want to Learn More Abate, J. (2012). Recoding gender: Women’s changing participation in computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. DeFrancisco, V.P. et al. (2014). Gender in communication: A critical introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fine, C. (2011). Delusions of gender: How our minds, society, and neurosexism create differences. New York: W.W. Norton. Fine, C. (2017). Testosterone rex: Myths of sex, science, and society. New York: W.W. Norton. Gavin, H. & Porter, T. (2014). Female aggression. New York: Wiley-Blackwell. Halpern, D.F. (2012). Sex differences in cognitive ability (4th ed.). New York: Psychology Press. Highsmith, J. & Broaster, S. (2016). S.T.E.M. 4 girls: The urban girl’s guide to the S.T.E.M. disciplines. Milwaukee, WI: Empower Me Books. Jordan-Young, R.M. (2011). Brainstorm: The flaws in the science of sex differences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Kilel, B. (2014). Girls in STEM. Frederick, MD: Zapphire. Mosatche, H.S., Lawner, E., & Matloff-Nieves, S. (2016). Breaking through!: Helping girls succeed in science, technol- ogy, engineering, and math. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Ruberg, W. & Steenburgh, K. (2011). Sexed sentiments: Interdisciplinary perspectives on gender and emotion. New York: Rodopi. Shaw, A. (2014). Gaming at the edge: Sexuality and gen- der at the margins of gamer culture. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Websites Association for Women in Mathematics http://www.awm-math.org/ Engineer Girl! http://engineergirl.org/ Girl Tech: Getting Girls Interested in Computers http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/club/girls.html Women in Engineering: ProActive Network http://wepan.org/

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