The Journal of the Academy of Nutrition
and Dietetics, Journal of Parenteral and
Enteral Nutrition, and MEDSURG Nursing
Journal have arranged to publish this
article simultaneously in their publica-
tions. Minor differences in style may
appear in each publication, but the article
is substantially the same in each journal.
Copyright ª 2013 by the Academy of
Nutrition and Dietetics, American Society
for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, and
Academy of Medical-Surgical Nurses.
2212-2672/$36.00
doi:10.1016/j.jand.2013.05.015
Available online 17 July 2013
JO
FROM THE ACADEMY
Critical Role of Nutrition in Improving Quality of Care:
An Interdisciplinary Call to Action to Address Adult
Hospital Malnutrition
Kelly A. Tappenden, PhD, RD, FASPEN; Beth Quatrara, DNP, RN, CMSRN; Melissa L. Parkhurst, MD; Ainsley M. Malone, MS, RD;
Gary Fanjiang, MD; Thomas R. Ziegler, MD
ABSTRACT
The current era of health care delivery, with its focus on providing high-quality, affordable care, presents many challenges to hospital-
based health professionals. The prevention and treatment of hospital malnutrition offers a tremendous opportunity to optimize the
overall quality of patient care, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce costs. Unfortunately, malnutrition continues to go unrecognized
and untreated in many hospitalized patients. This article represents a call to action from the interdisciplinary Alliance to Advance Patient
Nutrition to highlight the critical role of nutrition intervention in clinical care and to suggest practical ways to promptly diagnose and
treat malnourished patients and those at risk for malnutrition. We underscore the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to
addressing malnutrition both in the hospital and in the acute post-hospital phase. It is well recognized that malnutrition is associated
with adverse clinical outcomes. Although data vary across studies, available evidence shows that early nutrition intervention can reduce
complication rates, length of hospital stay, readmission rates, mortality, and cost of care. The key is to systematically identify patients
who are malnourished or at risk and to promptly intervene. We present a novel care model to drive improvement, emphasizing the
following six principles: (1) create an institutional culture where all stakeholders value nutrition; (2) redefine clinicians’ roles to include
nutrition care; (3) recognize and diagnose all malnourished patients and those at risk; (4) rapidly implement comprehensive nutrition
interventions and continued monitoring; (5) communicate nutrition care plans; and (6) develop a comprehensive discharge nutrition
care and education plan.
J Acad Nutr Diet. 2013;113:1219-1237.
T
HE UNITED STATES IS
entering a new era of health
care delivery in which changes
in health care policy are driving
an increased focus on costs, quality,
and transparency of care. This new
focus on improving the quality and ef-
ficiency of hospital care highlights an
urgent need to revisit the long-standing
challenge of hospital malnutrition and
elevate the role of nutrition care as a
critical component of patient recovery.
Malnutrition is common in the hospital
setting and can adversely affect clinical
outcomes and costs, but it is often
overlooked. Although results of inter-
vention studies vary, addressing hospi-
tal malnutrition has the potential to
improve quality of patient care and
clinical outcomes and reduce costs.1
Today it is estimated that at least
one third of patients arrive at the hos-
pital malnourished1-5 and, if left un-
treated, many of those patients will
continue to decline nutritionally,5
which may adversely impact their re-
covery and increase their risk of com-
plications and readmission. Hospital
malnutrition is not a new problem,
but “the skeleton in the hospital
closet,” was brought to light in Butter-
worth’s call for practices aimed at
proper diagnosis and treatment of
malnourished patients.6 As we enter a
new era of health care delivery, the
time is now to implement a novel,
comprehensive nutrition care model
URNAL OF THE ACADE
as part of improved quality standards
and to leverage proven examples for
success.
Effective management of malnutri-
tion requires collaboration among
multiple clinical disciplines. In many
hospitals, malnutrition continues to be
managed in silos, with knowledge and
responsibility provided predominantly
by the dietitian. However, the new era
of quality care will require a deliber-
ately more holistic and interdisci-
plinary process to address this critical
issue. All members of the clinical team
must be involved, including nurses
who perform initial nutrition screening
and develop innovative strategies to
facilitate patient compliance; dietitians
who complete nutrition assessment/
diagnosis and develop evidence-based
intervention(s); pharmacists who eval-
uate drug�nutrient interactions; and
physicians, including hospitalists, over-
seeing the overall care plan and docu-
mentation to support reimbursement
for services. Recognition of this prob-
lem and the opportunity to improve
MY OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1219
FROM THE ACADEMY
patient care were the impetus behind
creating the Alliance to Advance
Patient Nutrition (Alliance). The Alli-
ance brings together the Academy of
Nutrition and Dietetics (AND), the
Academy of Medical-Surgical Nurses
(AMSN), the Society of Hospital Medi-
cine (SHM), the American Society for
Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition
(A.S.P.E.N.), and Abbott Nutrition. The
Alliance is made possible with support
from Abbott Nutrition. These health
organizations are dedicated to the ad-
vancement of effective hospital nutri-
tion practices to help improve patients’
medical outcomes and support all
clinicians in collaborating on hospital-
wide nutrition procedures. The estab-
lished charter of the Alliance is to
champion improved hospital nutrition
practices through identification of
malnourished patients and patients at
risk for malnutrition, early nutrition
intervention and treatment, and in-
clusion of nutrition as a standard
component of all care processes.
Nutrition intervention for malnour-
ished patients is a low-risk, cost-effec-
tive strategy to improve quality of
hospital care, but it requires interdisci-
plinary collaboration. As representa-
tives of the Alliance, we announce a
call to action. We aspire to facilitate
the institution of universal nutrition
screening, rapid and appropriate nu-
trition interventions utilizing effective
interdisciplinary nutrition partner-
ships, and integration of comprehen-
sive strategies to prevent or treat
hospital malnutrition. This paper is not
intended to provide practice-based
guidelines, but rather highlights avail-
able data on the critical role nutrition
plays in improving patient outcomes,
outlines an innovative nutrition care
model, underscores the importance
of an interdisciplinary approach to
address hospital malnutrition, and
identifies challenges believed to impair
optimal nutrition care. In addition,
specific solutions that can be employed
by dietitians, nurses, physicians, and
other health care professionals, such as
nurse practitioners, physician assis-
tants, pharmacists, and dietetic techni-
cians, registered, are provided.
BURDEN OF HOSPITAL
MALNUTRITION
Although estimates of the prevalence
of malnutrition vary by setting,
1220 JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NUTRI
subgroup, and method of assessment,
the prevalence of malnutrition in hos-
pitals is particularly startling. It is
estimated that at least one third of
patients in developed countries have
some degree of malnutrition upon
admission to the hospital1-3,5 and, if
left untreated, approximately two
thirds of those patients will experience
a further decline in their nutrition
status during inpatient stay.5 Unfortu-
nately, despite the availability of vali-
dated screening tools, malnutrition
continues to be under-recognized in
many hospitals.7,8 Moreover, among
patients who are not malnourished
upon admission, approximately one
third may become malnourished while
in the hospital.9
Historically, a variety of tools and
definitions have been used throughout
the nutrition literature. For the pur-
poses of this paper mild through severe
malnutrition will be the focus and is
the intent when the term malnutrition
is used. Malnutrition is most simply
defined as any nutrition imbalance10
that affects both overweight and
underweight patients alike and is
generally described as either “under-
nutrition” or “overnutrition.”11 Hospi-
talized patients, regardless of their
body mass index (BMI), typically suffer
from undernutrition because of their
propensity for reduced food intake
due to illness-induced poor appetite,
gastrointestinal symptoms, reduced
ability to chew or swallow, or nil per os
(NPO) status for diagnostic and thera-
peutic procedures. In addition, they
may have increased energy, protein,
and essential micronutrient needs
because of inflammation, infection, or
other catabolic conditions. A consensus
statement by AND and A.S.P.E.N. pub-
lished in May 2012 defines malnutri-
tion as the presence of two or more of
the following characteristics: insuffi-
cient energy intake, weight loss, loss of
muscle mass, loss of subcutaneous fat,
localized or generalized fluid accumu-
lation, or decreased functional status.11
The importance of identifying at-risk
patients is highlighted by data showing
that malnutrition is associated with
many adverse outcomes, including an
increased risk of pressure ulcers and
impaired wound healing, immune sup-
pression and increased infection rate,
muscle wasting and functional loss
increasing the risk of falls, longer length
of hospital stay, higher readmission
TION AND DIETETICS
rates, higher treatment costs, and
increased mortality.1 Therefore, malnu-
trition places a heavy burden on the
patient, clinician, and health care
system.
Many of the adverse outcomes influ-
enced by malnutrition are potentially
preventable. Nosocomial infections are
a prime example. Approximately
2 million nosocomial infections occur
annually in the United States,12 and
those patients are more likely to spend
time in the intensive care unit, be
readmitted, and die as a result.13 A
retrospective study by Fry and col-
leagues examined nearly 1 million sur-
gical patients (N¼887,189) treated at
1,368 hospitals to determine the risk of
nosocomial infections and better un-
derstand the underlying patient char-
acteristics influencing that risk.14 The
analysis showed that patients with pre-
existing malnutrition and/or weight
loss had a two- to threefold increased
risk of developing Clostridium difficile
enterocolitis, surgical-site infection, or
postoperative pneumonia, and a greater
than fivefold higher risk ofmediastinitis
after coronary artery bypass graft sur-
gery or catheter-associated urinary
tract infection. Malnutrition and/or
weight loss also correlated with an
approximate fourfold higher risk of
developing a pressure ulcer. These data
are further supported by a prospective
multivariate analysis demonstrating
that malnutrition is an independent
risk factor for nosocomial infections.15
Impaired wound healing can signifi-
cantly influence length of hospital stay,
and the literature supports a strong
correlation between nutrition and
wound healing, wherein protein syn-
thesis is necessary.16 Hospitalized pa-
tients are at increased risk because loss
of significant lean body mass (LBM)
accelerates during bed rest.17,18 A 10%
loss of LBM results in immune sup-
pression and increases the risk of
infection, and a loss of >15% to 20% of
total LBM will impair wound heal-
ing.16,19 A loss of �30% leads to the
development of spontaneous wounds,
such as pressure ulcers, an increased
risk of pneumonia, and a complete lack
of wound healing.16,19 These complica-
tions are also associated with a sub-
stantial mortality risk, particularly in
older patients. A study evaluating the
care processes for hospitalized Medi-
care patients (N¼2,425; aged 65 years
and older) at risk for pressure ulcer
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
FROM THE ACADEMY
development showed that 76% of pa-
tients were malnourished, and esti-
mated compliance with nutrition
consultation was low (34%).20
Data from several recent studies
show that malnutrition can also influ-
ence hospital readmission rates.21-23
These studies evaluated multiple fac-
tors to identify individuals at increased
risk of readmission. The largest of these
studies, a retrospective observational
analysis of >10,000 consecutive ad-
missions (N¼6,805), reported a 30-day
readmission rate of 17%.21 Comorbid-
ities that significantly increased the
risk of readmission included congestive
heart failure, renal disease, cancer,
weight loss (not defined), and iron-
deficiency anemia. Weight loss corre-
lated with a 26% increased risk of
readmission (adjusted odds ratio¼
1.26).21 In a large single-center study of
1,442 general surgery patients, the
30-day readmission rate was 11%.22 The
most common reasons for readmission
were gastrointestinal problems/com-
plications (28% of readmissions), sur-
gical infections (22%), and failure to
thrive/malnutrition (10%). These find-
ings are consistent with the hypothesis
that poor nutrition contributes to post-
hospital syndrome, which, together
with a variety of other factors, such as
sleep disturbance, pain, and discom-
fort, can dramatically increase the
risk of 30-day readmission, often for
reasons other than the original
diagnosis.24
Finally, poor clinical outcomes asso-
ciated with malnutrition contribute to
higher hospitalization costs. As out-
lined above, malnourished patients
have higher rates of infections, pres-
sure ulcers, impaired wound healing,
and other adverse outcomes requiring
greater nursing care and more medi-
cations. In turn, these complications
can contribute to longer lengths of
hospital stay and higher rates of read-
mission, all of which indirectly con-
tribute to higher hospital costs.1
Indeed, a study conducted in the
United Kingdom estimated the annual
expenditure for managing patients at
medium or high risk of disease-related
malnutrition to be EURV10.5 billion
(US$11.3 billion, based on 2003 ex-
change rates), more than half of which
was directly related to hospital care.25
These studies strongly suggest that
the consequences of unrecognized and
untreated malnutrition are substantial,
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
not only for patients’ quality of care but
also from a cost perspective. Malnutri-
tion negatively affects clinical out-
comes and results in higher costs and,
with the changing health care land-
scape, reimbursement for costs associ-
ated with preventable events will be
reduced. All clinicians must take action
to address these concerns, improve
patient quality of life, and increase the
health care system value.
IMPACT OF NUTRITION
INTERVENTION ON KEY
OUTCOMES
The benefits of nutrition intervention
in terms of improving key clinical out-
comes are well documented. Numerous
studies, predominantly in patients
65 years of age and older with or at
risk for malnutrition, have shown
the potential of specific nutrition
interventions to substantially reduce
complication rates, length of hospital
stay, readmission rates, cost of care,
and, in some studies, mortality.5,26-36
Nutrition intervention strategies rep-
resent a broad spectrum of options that
can be organized into four categories:
(1) food and/or nutrient delivery;
(2) nutrition education; (3) nutrition
counseling, and (4) coordination of
nutrition care. Food and/or nutrient
delivery requires an individualized
approach that includes energy- and
nutrient-dense food, complete oral
nutrition supplements (ONS) that pro-
vide macronutrients (from carbohy-
drate, fat, and protein sources)
combined with micronutrients (mix-
tures of complete vitamins, minerals,
and trace elements); enteral nutrition
(EN), which in the context of this
report refers to nutrients provided into
the gastrointestinal tract via a tube;
and/or parenteral nutrition (PN).
Although the nutrition support litera-
ture has generally featured smaller
trials and observational studies rather
than large, multicenter, randomized
controlled trials, evidence strongly
supports the importance of nutrition
intervention. The value of EN and PN is
well established in select patient pop-
ulations but remains unclear in others.
In addition, numerous studies have
shown improved body weight, LBM,
and grip strength with dietary coun-
seling, with or without ONS.37 A
growing number of studies have exam-
ined the impact of ONS inmalnourished
JOURNAL OF THE ACADE
patients, providing the framework
for our call to action. Evidence sup-
porting intervention with EN and PN is
beyond the scope of the current paper
and will be addressed in subsequent
reviews.
Clinical Complications
Studies evaluating the efficacy of ONS
delivery have generally shown a variety
of metabolic improvements and, in
many studies, a reduction in several
clinical complications. One meta-
analysis including seven studies
(N¼284) indicates that patients re-
ceiving ONS had reduced complication
rates (eg, infections, gastrointestinal
perforations, pressure ulcers, anemia
and cardiac complications) compared
with control patients.28More recently, a
large Cochrane systematic review of
24 studies involving 6,225 patients
65 years of age and older at risk for
malnutrition demonstrated fewer
complications (eg, pressure sores, deep
vein thrombosis, and respiratory and
urinary infections) among patients re-
ceiving ONS compared with routine
care (relative risk [RR]¼0.86; 95% CI
0.75 to 0.99).27 Available evidence in-
dicates high-protein ONS to be partic-
ularly effective at reducing the risk of
complications. A systematic review of
elderly patients (older than 65 years of
age) with hip fractures demonstrated a
more effective reduction in the number
of long-term medical complications
with high-protein ONS (>20% total en-
ergy from protein) than low-protein
or nonprotein-containing supplements
(RR¼0.78; 95% CI 0.65 to 0.95).26 A
meta-analysis of four randomized trials
(N¼1,224) also showed that, in patients
with no pressure ulcers at baseline,
high-protein ONS resulted in a signifi-
cant 25% lower incidence of ulcers
compared with routine care.38 In addi-
tion, evidence indicates that nutrition
intervention can reduce the risk of falls
in frail and malnourished elderly pa-
tients. In 210malnourished older adults
newly admitted to an acute-care hos-
pital, intervention with a protein- and
energy-rich diet, ONS, calcium/vitamin
D supplements, and counseling reduced
the incidence of falls by approximately
60% comparedwith routine care (10% vs
23%).35 Avoidance of these preventable
events can shorten length of hospital
stay, decrease morbidity and mortality,
and reduce liability for the hospital.
MY OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1221
FROM THE ACADEMY
Length of Stay
Consistent with evidence that nutrition
intervention can reduce clinical com-
plications, strong nutrition care can also
reduce the length of hospital stay. In a
prospective study conducted at The
Johns Hopkins Hospital, nutrition
screening involving a team approach to
address malnutrition and earlier inter-
vention reduced the length of hospital
stay byan average of 3.2 days in severely
malnourished patients,5 and this trans-
lated into substantial cost savings of
$1,514 per patient. Two meta-analyses
have shown significantly reduced
length of hospital stay in patients re-
ceiving ONS compared with control
patients. One analysis demonstrated a
reduced average length of hospital stay
ranging from2days for surgical patients
to 33 days for orthopedic patients
(P<0.004).28 In addition, patientswith a
lower BMI (<20) received the greatest
benefit from optimized food and/or
nutrient delivery. Likewise, in a recent
meta-analysis of nine randomized trials
(N¼1,227), high-protein ONS signifi-
cantly reduced length of stay by an
average of 3.8 days (P¼0.040) compared
with routine care.31 A recent retrospec-
tive analysis utilized information from
>1 million adult inpatient cases found
in the 2000-2010 Premier Perspectives
Database maintained by the Premier
Healthcare Alliance—representing a to-
tal of 44 million hospital episodes from
across the United States or approxi-
mately20%of all inpatient admissions in
the United States. Within this sample,
ONS reduced length of hospital stay by
an average of 2.3 days or 21%, and the
average cost savingswas $4,734 or 21.6%
compared with routine care.36
Readmissions
Hospital readmission rate is another
important outcome that can be
improved through nutrition interven-
tion. Thirty-day readmission rates de-
creased from 16.5% to 7.1% in a
community hospital that implemented
a comprehensive malnutrition clinical
pathway program focused on identifi-
cation of at-risk patients, nutrition care
decisions, inpatient care, and discharge
planning.30 A prospective randomized
trial in acutely ill patients 65 to 92 years
of age (N¼445) demonstrated a signifi-
cantly lower 6-month readmission rate
among those who received a normal
hospital diet plus high-protein ONS
1222 JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NUTRI
compared with those patients who
received only the normal hospital diet
(29% vs 40%, respectively; hazard
ratio¼0.68; 95% CI 0.49 to 0.94).32
Finally, analysis of the Premier Per-
spectives Database showed that use of
ONS reduced 30-day readmission rates
by6.7%,36 indicating the significant real-
world benefit of nutrition intervention
on a key patient outcome.
Mortality
Several meta-analyses have also
demonstrated reduced mortality in
patients receiving optimized nutri-
ent care. An analysis of 11 studies
(N¼1,965) found significantly lower
mortality rates among hospitalized pa-
tients receiving ONS (19%) compared
with control patients (25%; P<0.001).28
This represented a 24% overall reduc-
tion in mortality, and patients with
lower average BMI (<20) receiving ONS
had a greater reduction in mortality.
Among elderly patients hospitalized for
hip fracture, significantly fewer patients
had an unfavorable combined outcome
(mortality or medical complication) if
they received ONS vs routine care
(RR¼0.52; 95% CI 0.32 to 0.84).29
Another systematic review of 32
studies (N¼3,021) found that, in elderly
patients, ONS significantly reduced
mortality compared with routine care
(RR¼0.74; 95% CI 0.59 to 0.92).33 Sub-
group analyses from the original
Cochrane review and two updates have
consistently shown reduced mortality
in undernourished patients receiving
ONS compared with routine care.27,33,34
Collectively, these data provide solid
evidence that nutrition intervention
significantly contributes to improved
clinical outcomes and reduced cost of
care, primarily in patients 65 years of
age and older and those with, or at
risk for, malnutrition. However, it is
important to note that isolated studies
and meta-analyses have not demon-
strated such significantly improved
clinical outcomes with nutrition inter-
vention.37,39-42 Additional research
studies, particularly well-powered,
randomized controlled clinical trials,
are always beneficial to further explore
the effects of nutrition intervention on
clinical outcomes and to assess how
those benefits can translate into cost
savings. Nevertheless, given the impor-
tance of adequate nutrition to cell and
organ function, coupled with promising
TION AND DIETETICS
clinical data reported to date, the time
is now to act on the evidence at hand
and implement nutrition intervention
strategies shown to be safe and
efficacious.
ALLIANCE NUTRITION CARE
RECOMMENDATIONS
If we are to make progress toward
improving nutrition care practices that
guarantee every malnourished or at-
risk patient is identified and treated
effectively, we must proactively iden-
tify barriers impacting the provision of
nutrition care. Toward this end, at least
six key challenges must be overcome.
First, despite at least one third of hos-
pitalized patients being admitted
malnourished, a majority of these pa-
tients continue to go unrecognized or
are inadequately screened.43 Second,
while the responsibility of patients’
nutrition care is often placed on the
dietitian many institutions lack ade-
quate dietitian staffing to properly
address all patients. Third, nutrition
care is often delayed due to the pa-
tient’s medical status, lack of diet order,
and time to nutrition consult. In fact, a
study at Johns Hopkins found that time
to consultation from admission is
nearly 5 days,5 which is similar to the
average length of hospital stay.44
Fourth, nurses provide and oversee
patient care 24/7, observe nutrition
intake and tolerance, and interact
continually with the patient and their
family/caregivers, yet they are rarely
included in nutrition care.45 Fifth, in
many care environments, physician
sign-off is required to implement a
nutrition care plan. Dietitian recom-
mendations are implemented in only
42% of cases.46 Finally, many patients
experience difficulty consuming meals
without assistance, contributing to
more than half of hospitalized patients
not finishing their meals.47
To address these barriers and shift
the paradigm of nutrition care, the
Alliance Steering Committee, whose
members possess broad-ranging ex-
pertise and clinical experience, devel-
oped several key principles for
advancing patient nutrition. Through a
series of meetings conducted over the
past year, the committee explored the
following topics: empowerment of all
clinicians; recognition and diagnosis
of all patients; same-day automatic
intervention for all at-risk patients;
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
Figure 1. The Alliance’s Key Principles for Advancing Patient Nutrition. EHR¼electronic health record.
FROM THE ACADEMY
education and involvement of patients
in their nutrition care; and apprecia-
tion of the value of nutrition by all
hospital stakeholders. Six principles
deemed essential elements of optimal
patient nutrition care were derived
from these topics (Figure 1). Attain-
ment of these six ideals, however, will
require processes and collaboration
among all hospital stakeholders, in-
cluding dietitians, nurses, physicians,
and administrators, each of whom
must fulfill their role in this effort
(Figure 2). Translation of these pro-
cesses into a practical interdisciplinary
nutrition care algorithm is illustrated in
Figure 3.
Principle 1: Create an
Institutional Culture Where All
Stakeholders Value Nutrition
True progress requires that all hospital
stakeholders, including clinicians and
administrators, fully understand the
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
pervasiveness of hospital malnutrition
and the effect patient nutrition caremay
have on overall clinical outcomes. Cli-
nicians and administrators often fail to
prioritize understanding the extent of
malnutrition in their institutions and its
potential impact on cost and/or quality
of care. Nurses and physicians receive
limited formal nutrition education dur-
ing training and often do not prioritize
nutrition among the competing prior-
ities within patient care. Failing to pri-
oritize nutrition within an institution
may limit available nutrition interven-
tion options and human resources
(eg, dietitian nutrition-focused nurses
and physicians) required for optimal
nutrition care. To be successful, in-
stitutions need motivated nutrition
champions at all levels of clinical care
and administration.
To ensure that clinicians and hospital
leaders understand the clinical and
financial implications of malnutrition
and take proper steps to address it,
JOURNAL OF THE ACADE
the Alliance offers the following
recommendations:
� Clinicians must be educated on
the recognition of malnourished
patients and evidence-based
nutrition interventions. Discus-
sion of nutrition care plans
should be a mandated compo-
nent of daily team meetings
(rounds or huddles).
� Malnutrition must be appropri-
ately included as part of the pa-
tient’s diagnosis and nutrition
interventions must be viewed as
a core component of a patient’s
medical therapy. Nutrition treat-
ment plans should be addressed
with the same consistency and
rigor as other therapies.
� Hospital administrators must
recognize the financial benefit of
optimal nutrition care. Institu-
tional financial data must be
reviewed to identify challenges
MY OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1223
Principle Key Hospital Stakeholders
Dietitian Nurse Physician Hospital administrator
1. Create an Institutional
Culture Where All
Stakeholders Value
Nutrition
� Serve as primary authority
on “all things nutrition”
� Educate key hospital
stakeholders on improved
patient outcomes and
reduced costs achieved
with optimal nutrition care
� Host hospital-wide learning
opportunities at regular
intervals
� Recognize the essential role
that nurses play in
achieving enhanced
patient outcomes through
individualized nutrition
care
� Incorporate nutrition into
routine care checklists and
processes
� Include patient dietary
intake into team huddles
� Provide leadership under-
scoring nutrition care as an
essential part of patient-
centered care
� Know evidence regarding
impact of malnutrition and
effectiveness of nutrition
intervention
� Include dietitian in daily
team huddles/rounds
� Incorporate nutrition into
routine care checklists and
processes
� Become a nutrition cham-
pion and provide support
for the development of
effective nutrition care
processes
� Share quality and eco-
nomic gains to be made by
investing in nutrition care
with hospital leadership
team
2. Redefine Clinicians’
Role to Include
Nutrition Care
� Actively contribute nutri-
tion expertise and engage
other team members with
assessment data on prog-
ress made with nutrition
care efforts
� Regularly participate in
interdisciplinary rounds
� Ensure practices are in
place to support imple-
mentation of nutrition
intervention
� Develop processes to ensure
that nutrition screening and
dietitian–prescribed inter-
vention occurs within the
targeted timeframes
� Facilitate nursing inter-
ventions to treat patients
who are malnourished
or at risk
� Empower dietitian to
cooperatively lead nutri-
tion care as clinical team
member
� Support nurse work pro-
cesses to include nutrition
screening and support
nutrition intervention
� Support nutrition educa-
tion of clinicians needing
initial training and
continuing education
� Provide ordering privi-
leges to dietitian for issues
relating to the nutrition
care process
3. Recognize and
Diagnose All
Malnourished Patients
and Those
At Risk
� Utilize standard malnutri-
tion characteristics set
forth by ANDa and
A.S.P.E.N.b guidelines
� Screen every hospitalized
patient for malnutrition as
part of regular workflow
procedures
� Consider nutrition status as
an essential attribute of
medical assessment, moni-
toring, and care plans
� Ensure EHRc captures
screening data and
malnutrition criteria with
the appropriate triggers in
place for initiating the
(continued on next page)
Figure 2. Summary of Alliance’s nutrition care recommendations for key hospital stakeholders.
FR
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1224
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A
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A
N
D
D
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S
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2013
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Principle Key Hospital Stakeholders
Dietitian Nurse Physician Hospital administrator
� Establish competence in
nutrition-focused physical
assessment
� Communicate screening
results through use of EHR
� Rescreen patients at least
weekly during hospital stay
� Communicate changes in
clinical condition indica-
tive of nutrition risk
next steps when positive
screens or diagnostic
assessment are obtained
4. Rapidly Implement
Comprehensive
Nutrition Intervention
and Continued
Monitoring
� Establish procedures to
support policy that patients
identified as “at-risk” during
nutrition screen receive
automated nutrition inter-
vention within 24 hours
while awaiting assessment,
diagnosis, and care plan
� Lead an interdisciplinary
team to establish nutrition
algorithms for use in
various scenarios when
positive screens or diag-
nostic assessments are
obtained
� Provide ENd formulary and
micronutrient therapy
options in written form as
a pocket-sized document;
make readily available to
all staff to ensure fast
intervention
� Work with nurses to estab-
lish policies and
� Ensure that procedures
allowing patients identi-
fied as “at-risk” during
nutrition screen receive
automated nutrition inter-
vention within 24 hours
while awaiting assess-
ment, diagnosis, and care
plan
� Develop procedures to
provide patients with
meals at “off times” if pa-
tient was not available or
under a restricted diet at
the time of meal delivery
� Avoid disconnecting EN or
PNf forpatient repositioning,
ambulation, travel, or
procedures
� Work with interdisciplinary
team dietitian to establish
policies and interdisci-
plinary practices to
� Support policy that –
vides automated nutrit
intervention within 24
hours in patients ident d
as “at-risk” during nutr n
screen, while awaiting
nutrition assessment, d –
nosis, and care plan
� Minimize nil per os –
riods for patient with
scheduling of procedu /
tests and remain mind l
of “holds” on POe diet
� Provide ordering privileges
to dietitian for issues
relating to the nutrition
care process (eg, diet plans,
ONSg, micronutrients, and
calorie counts)
� Ensure EHR includes auto-
matic triggers that initiate
nutrition protocol mea-
sures to be reviewed
when positive screens are
obtained
� Ensure EHR includes a
module for recording
food/ONS intake data and
triggers dietitian consult if
consumption is
suboptimal
(continued on next page)
Figure 2. (continued) Summary of Alliance’s nutrition care recommendations for key hospital stakeholders.
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U
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N
A
L
O
F
TH
E
A
C
A
D
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Y
O
F
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N
A
N
D
D
IETETIC
S
1225
pro
ion
ifie
itio
iag
pe
res
fu
s
Principle Key Hospital Stakeholders
Dietitian Nurse Physician Hospital administrator
interdisciplinarypractices to
maximize nutrient con-
sumption and monitoring
needs
maximize food/ONS
consumption
� Monitor food/ONS and
communicate to dietitian/
physician via EHR
5. Communicate
Nutrition Care Plans
� If present, ensure mild,
moderate, or severe
malnutrition is included as
complicating condition in
coding processes
� Assume responsibility for
ensuring that a patient’s
nutrition care plan is care-
fully documented in the
EHR, regularly updated,
and effectively communi-
cated to all healthcare
providers, including post-
acute facilities and primary
care physicians
� Lead a interdisciplinary
team to create and main-
tain standardized policies,
procedures, and EHR-auto-
mated triggers relevant to
nutrition, including order
sets and protocols in the
hospital’s EHR
� Consult dietitian regarding
nutrient intake concerns
� If present, ensure mild,
moderate, or severe
malnutrition is included as
complicating condition in
coding processes
� Incorporate nutrition dis-
cussions into handoff of
care and nursing care
plans
� Establish and reinforce
expectation that a patient’s
nutritioncareplan iscarefully
documented in the EHR,
regularly updated, and
effectively communicated to
all health care providers
� If present, ensure mild,
moderate, or severe
malnutrition is included as
complicating condition in
coding processes
� If present, ensure mild,
moderate, or severe
malnutrition is included as
complicating condition in
coding processes
� Ensure EHR is adapted to
ensure nutrition diagnosis
and complete care plan is
included as a standard
category of medical
assessment in the central
area of EHR
6. Develop a
Comprehensive
Discharge Nutrition
Care and Education Plan
� Provide patients, family
members, and caregivers
with nutrition education
and a comprehensive
� Include nutrition as a
component of all clinician
conversations with pa-
tients and their family
members/caregivers
� Include nutrition as a
component of all clinician
conversations with pa-
tients and their family
members/caregivers
� Provide expectation re-
garding continuity of
nutrition care, including
discharge planning and
patient education
(continued on next page)
Figure 2. (continued) Summary of Alliance’s nutrition care recommendations for key hospital stakeholders.
FR
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1226
JO
U
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S
Septem
ber
2013
Volum
e
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ber
9
Pr
in
ci
p
le
K
ey
H
os
p
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FROM THE ACADEMY
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9 JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY
to improving nutrition interven-
tion, project cost savings with
various nutrition interventions,
and revise budgets to facilitate
action. Budgets must support
adequate and appropriate nutri-
tion intervention as necessitated
by dietitian, nursing, and physi-
cian staff.
� Professional associations for di-
etitians, nurses, physicians, and
hospital administrators must
address the widespread problem
of hospital malnutrition. Disci-
pline-specific resources such as
toolkits and practice bundles,
evidence-based publications, and
continuing education opportu-
nities must be established and
widely available. Funding mech-
anisms for nutrition-related re-
search should be established to
identify best practices to opti-
mizing nutrition care.
Principle 2: Redefine Clinicians’
Roles to Include Nutrition Care
Providing effective nutrition interven-
tion requires a champion within and
collaboration among all disciplines
involved in patient care. All health care
professionals involved in patient care
must be empowered to influence nu-
trition decisions. In many hospitals,
however, the responsibility for nutri-
tion recommendations almost always
rest solely with the dietitian. Many in-
stitutions lack nurse and physician
leaders who champion nutrition care.
Interdisciplinary leadership is essential
to ensure that nutrition care is valued
and carries a high priority. To ensure
effective management of hospital
malnutrition, nurses and physicians
must also play a role.
In this regard, the Alliance recom-
mends redefining clinicians’ roles to
include responsibility for optimal
nutrition care, which can be accom-
plished as follows:
� Interdisciplinary teams must
discuss potential barriers and
solutions to recognize and treat
malnourished or at-risk patients
in their hospitals.
� Engage nurses to understand
nutrition risk factors such as un-
derconsumed meals and actions
required on positive malnutri-
tion screenings. Develop and
OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1227
Figure 3. The Alliance’s Approach to Interdisciplinary Nutrition Care. AND¼Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics; A.S.P.E.N.¼American
Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; EHR¼electronic health record; ONS¼oral nutrition supplement; PCP¼primary care
physician.
FROM THE ACADEMY
12
implement policies that allow
nurses to provide nutrition care,
suchas returning low-riskpatients
to previous established feeding
orders following temporary de-
lays, initiating calorie counts, and
measuring body weight as indi-
cated. Policies that inhibit nursing
action inhibit optimal patient
nutrition. Prompt nursing action
can reduce malnutrition by
creating focused meal times,
managing meal-time environ-
ments and staff meal times, inter-
vening with nutrition therapies as
appropriate, and designating a
nutrition care nurse in each clin-
ical area to monitor and evaluate
implementation of the policy.48
� Given the extensive nutrition
expertise of dietitians, hospital
administrators, such as a chief
medical officer, must grant them
28 JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NUTRITIO
ordering privileges for ordering
diets, ONS, vitamins, and calorie
counts to eliminate inefficiencies
and prevent delays in food
and/or nutrient delivery. For
example, at the University of
Kansas Hospital (KUH), when
faced with delays in care because
the dietitian’s recommendations
were not being noted and or-
dered by physician teams, the
nutrition support team obtained
ordering privileges for all di-
etitians. These privileges include
ordering ONS, calorie counts,
patient weights, zinc, vitamin C
and multivitamins, and select
nutrition-related labs. This was
an important step in advancing
nutrition care at KUH by pro-
moting timely gathering of
assessment data and nimble
N AND DIETETICS
implementation and revision of
optimal nutrition interventions.
� Hospitalistsmust add nutrition to
their interdisciplinary approach
to patient care and serve as
nutrition champions among phy-
sicians. In support of this effort,
hospitalists should include a die-
titian andnutrition-focusednurse
in team huddles and nutrition
should be included in the daily
problem list.
Principle 3: Recognize and
Diagnose All Malnourished
Patients and Those at Risk
Given the high prevalence of
hospital malnutrition, each hospital-
ized patient must receive proper nutri-
tion screening, with findings effectively
communicated to ensure immediate
assessment and prompt nutrition
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
Table 1. Validated malnutrition screening tools for hospitalized patientsa
Screening tool Parameters/scoring Development Validation
Malnutrition Screening
Tool (MST)53
Weight loss, appetite; at-risk
score �2
408 inpatients (mean
age¼58 y);
standard for comparison:
SGAb; sensitivity 93%;
specificity 93%
SGA: sensitivity 92%,
specificity 61%;
MNAc: sensitivity 92%,
specificity 72%62
Mini Nutritional Assessment-
Short
Form (MNA-SF)56
Weight change, recent
intake, BMI,d acute
disease, mobility,
dementia/depression;
at-risk score �11
155 community-dwelling
elders (mean age¼79 y);
standard for comparison:
physician assessment of
nutritional status;
sensitivity 98%; specificity
100% (MNA-SFe cut point
�10)
MNA: sensitivity 90%,
specificity 88% (MNA-SF
cut point �11)63
MNA: sensitivity 89%,
specificity 82% (MNA-SF
cut point �11)64
“Nutritional assessment”:
sensitivity 100%,
specificity 38% (MNA-SF
cut point �10)65
Malnutrition Universal
Screening Tool
(MUST)52,66
Weight change, recent/
predicted intake, BMI,
acute disease; high-risk
score �2
8,944 inpatients, review of
128 trials (mean age not
reported);
standard for comparison:
nutrition support trials
demonstrating improved
clinical outcomes;
sensitivity 75%; specificity
55%
SGA: sensitivity 61%,
specificity 79%67
SGA: sensitivity 72%,
specificity 90%;
MNA: k¼0.3968
MNA: k¼0.5569
Nutritional Risk Screening
2002 (NRS-2002)54
Weight change, recent
intake, BMI, acute disease,
age; at-risk score �3
Adapted from Malnutrition
Advisory Group screening
tool
SGA: sensitivity 74%,
specificity 87%;
MNA: k¼0.3968
SGA: sensitivity 62%,
specificity 63%67
MNA: k¼1.0070
Short Nutritional
Assessment Questionnaire
(SNAQª)55
Weight change, appetite,
supplements/tube
feeding;
at-risk score �2
291 inpatients (mean
age¼58 y);
standard for comparison:
BMI <18.5 or weight loss
>5%;
sensitivity 86%; specificity
89%
BMI <18.5 or recent weight
loss >5%: sensitivity 79%,
specificity 83%71
aAdapted with permission from Young and colleagues.51
bSGA¼Subjective Global Assessment.
cMNA¼Mini Nutritional Assessment.
dBMI¼body mass index; calculated as kg/m2.
eSF¼short-form.
FROM THE ACADEMY
intervention. Using validated screening
tools to identify at-risk patients is
crucial because, for many health care
professionals without nutrition train-
ing, screening is currently a superficial
observation wherein boxes are check-
ed or unchecked without reliable
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
screening using a validated tool. Early
identification of clinical criteria sup-
porting malnutrition diagnosis and
effective processes for communicating
information related to the nutrition
care process are often absent. Given
these barriers, the Alliance is
JOURNAL OF THE ACADE
announcing this call to action to ensure
prompt diagnosis and intervention of
hospitalized patients who are
malnourished or at risk for malnutri-
tion. Every hospital must institute an
interdisciplinary approach to nutrition
care that is based on formal policies and
MY OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1229
1. Have you lost weight recently without trying?
No 0
Unsure 2
If Yes, how much weight (kg) have you lost?
1 – 5 1
6 – 10 2
11 – 15 3
> 15 4
Unsure 2 Weight Loss Score:
2. Have you been eating poorly because of a decreased
appetite?
No 0
Yes 1 Appetite Score:
Total MST Score (weight loss + appetite scores)
Figure 4. Malnutrition Screening Tool (MST). Adapted with permission from Ferguson
and colleagues.53
FROM THE ACADEMY
procedures ensuring the early identifi-
cation of patients who are malnour-
ished or at risk for malnutrition and
implementation of comprehensive
nutrition care plans.
Screening
Comprehensive nutrition screening of
all hospitalized patients is critical for
both the timely identification of those
at risk and to prioritize patients
requiring nutrition assessment and
intervention. The Alliance supports the
Joint Commission’s recommendation
for nutrition screening within 24 hours
of admission to an acute-care hospital
and at frequent intervals throughout
hospitalization (Figure 3).49 Due to
limited clinician time and nutrition
knowledge, a simplified, practical, vali-
dated screening tool must be used.
Numerous tools exist to screen for
malnutrition risk in hospitalized pa-
tients.50,51 Although no universally
accepted screening tool exists, it is
important to select a tool that is prac-
tical, easy to use, and has been validated
in the patient population of interest.
Currently, validated screening tools
include theMalnutrition Screening Tool
(MST), Mini Nutritional Assessment-
Short Form (MNA-SF), Malnutrition
1230 JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NUTRI
Universal Screening Tool (MUST),
Nutritional Risk Screening 2002 (NRS-
2002), and Short Nutritional Assess-
ment Questionnaire (SNAQ)52-56
(Table 1). Important aspects of a nutri-
tion screening tool include scientific
validation, and easy administration
requiring no specialized nutrition
knowledge. For example, the advantage
of the MST is that it is quick (takes <5
minutes) and straightforward, consists
of two simple questions evaluating
weight change and appetite (Figure 4)
and was designed for use by busy
health care professionals not neces-
sarily trained in nutrition. These tools
allow nutrition screening to become an
integral part of routine clinical practice
without being viewed as a burden or
imposing a significant extra workload
on hospital staff.
Screening results must be docu-
mented within the electronic health
record (EHR) to allow for prompt
communication between the nursing
staff and other health care team
members. When a positive nutrition
screen is obtained, the EHR should be
configured to trigger a query for entry
of a diet order or other appropriate
intervention while the patient awaits
further assessment and development
of a nutrition care plan. Nurses must
TION AND DIETETICS
regularly rescreen patients with ade-
quate nutrition status upon admission
because many will become at risk for
malnutrition during hospitalization.
The MST can be easily completed while
nurses interact with patients and their
family/caregivers and while conducting
regular assessments for patients at risk
of pressure ulcers and falls.
Assessment and Diagnosis
Nutrition assessment is a method of
obtaining, verifying, and interpreting
data needed to identify nutrition-
related problems, their causes, and
significance. The dietitian must per-
form nutrition assessments in all pa-
tients considered at risk based on
nutrition screening to characterize
and determine the cause of nutrition
deficits. Traditionally, changes in acute-
phase proteins, such as serum albumin
and pre-albumin, were considered
standard biomarkers for diagnosing
malnutrition.11 However, it is now well
documented that serum levels of these
proteins are affected not only by
nutrition status but also by inflamma-
tion, fluid status, and other factors.
Consequently, these are no longer
considered reliable or specific bio-
markers for malnutrition. Consistent
with this evidence, as of 2012, the AND
and A.S.P.E.N. no longer recommend
using inflammatory biomarkers for
diagnosis of malnutrition.
To address the need for guidance in
this area, an International Guidelines
group convened in 2009 and devel-
oped an overarching etiology-based
definition of malnutrition that takes
into account the important relationship
between disease and malnutrition.57
This broad definition describes three
separate etiologies for malnutrition
(Figure 5), two of which include the
presence of disease (either acute or
chronic). The AND and A.S.P.E.N. sub-
sequently developed a standardized set
of diagnostic criteria for adult malnu-
trition in routine clinical practice using
this new etiology-based definition.11
No single parameter is definitive for
malnutrition; therefore, AND and
A.S.P.E.N. proposed that malnutrition
be diagnosed when at least two of the
following six characteristics are iden-
tified: (1) insufficient energy intake;
(2) weight loss; (3) loss of subcutane-
ous fat; (4) loss of muscle mass;
(5) localized or generalized fluid
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
Figure 5. Etiology-based malnutrition definitions. Adapted with permission from White and colleagues.11
FROM THE ACADEMY
accumulation that may sometimes
mask weight loss; and (6) diminished
functional status. The magnitude and
temporal aspects of change among
these dynamic characteristics can be
used to distinguish between nonsevere
and severe malnutrition (Table 2).
The Alliance recommends that all
clinicians become familiar with and
use the AND and A.S.P.E.N. character-
istics for identification and documen-
tation of malnutrition (Figure 3).11 In
patients with or at risk of malnutrition,
development and initiation of a nutri-
tion care plan must occur within 48
hours of admission. Several patient
characteristics indicative of malnutri-
tion (eg, weight loss, loss of muscle or
fat, fluid retention, and cutaneous signs
of micronutrient deficiencies, such as
glossitis or cheliosis) can be identified
during routine comprehensive assess-
ments. As noted earlier, changes in
acute-phase proteins should be inter-
preted with caution and should not be
used exclusively to diagnose malnutri-
tion. These proteins are, however, good
indicators of inflammation. In addition,
other laboratory indicators of inflam-
mation (eg, C-reactive protein, white
blood cell count, and glucose levels)
may be informative. A clear under-
standing of the patient’s chief com-
plaint and medical history is also
important to appreciate the potential
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
for underlying inflammation, which
can increase the risk of malnutrition
by increasing metabolism. Conditions
such as fever, infection, organ dys-
function, and hyperglycemia may be
indicative of underlying inflammation
and contribute to an etiology-based
diagnosis, including identification of
currently well-nourished patients at
risk for malnutrition.
Obtaining adequate information
from the patient or caregiver regarding
food and nutrient intake, body weight
changes, and functional changes (eg,
ability to purchase and cook food, and
dental status) is essential to identify
periods of insufficient intake. Changes
in physical function (eg, ambulation,
chewing ability, and mental status is-
sues) must be assessed and monitored
as appropriate based on individual pa-
tient circumstances. Ensuring these
various assessments are routinely and
carefully performed is vital to an ac-
curate diagnosis of malnutrition. In
addition, specific fields for the AND and
A.S.P.E.N. malnutrition characteristics
must be completed so that system
alerts are triggered when two of the
six criteria are documented, thereby
clearly communicating the malnutri-
tion diagnosis to the health care team.
Accurate coding of the malnutrition
diagnosis as a complicating condition
of the primary diagnosis is also critical
JOURNAL OF THE ACADE
to ensure adequate documentation to
support appropriate reimbursement
and tracking of costs to allow for a
more accurate quantification of the
burden of malnutrition in the future.
Principle 4: Rapidly Implement
Comprehensive Nutrition
Interventions and Continued
Monitoring
When a patient is identified as
malnourished, appropriate nutrition
intervention must be promptly ordered
and fully implemented (Figure 3). Bar-
riers to this ideal are varied, but often
include: (1) NPO orders while patients
await further assessment, (2) lack of
nursing protocol orders focused on
nutrition, (3) delay in assessment of
nutrition status due to insufficient
dietitian staffing, (4) dietitian recom-
mendations unheeded due to the
physician’s focus on other medical
concerns, (5) physician uncertainty
with product formulary and/or specific
micronutrient therapy options in their
hospitals, and (6) inadequate food
consumption due to poor appetite,
disease processes, and interruptions to
mealtimes.
To overcome barriers to early and
optimal nutrition intervention, the
Alliance provides the following
recommendations:
MY OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1231
Table 2. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition clinical characteristics that the clinician can obtain and document
to support a diagnosis of malnutritiona
Clinical characteristicb
Malnutrition in the
Context of Acute
Illness or Injury
Malnutrition in
the Context of
Chronic Illness
Malnutrition in the
Context of Social or
Environmental
Circumstances
Moderatec Severed Moderate Severe Moderate Severe
(1) Energy intake: malnutrition is the
result of inadequate food and
nutrient intake or assimilation; thus,
recent intake compared with
estimated requirements is a primary
criterion defining malnutrition. The
clinician may obtain or review the
food and nutrition history, estimate
optimum energy needs, compare
them with estimates of energy
consumed, and report inadequate
intake as a percentage of estimated
energy requirements over time.
<75% of estimated
energy
requirement for
>7 days
�50% of estimated
energy
requirement for
�5 days
<75% of estimated
energy
requirement for
�1 mo
�75% of estimated
energy
requirement for
�1 mo
<75% of estimated
energy
requirement for
�3 mo
�50% of estimated
energy
requirement for
�1 mo
% Time % Time % Time % Time % Time % Time
(2) Interpretation of weight loss: The
clinician may evaluate weight in
light of other clinical findings,
including the presence of under- or
overhydration. The clinician may
assess weight change over time
reported as a percentage of weight
lost from baseline.
Physical findings
Malnutrition typically results in
changes to the physical
examination. The clinician may
perform a physical examination and
document any one of the physical
examination findings below as an
indicator of malnutrition.
1-2
5
7.5
1 wk
1 mo
3 mo
>2
>5
>7.5
1 wk
1 mo
3 mo
5
7.5
10
20
1 mo
3 mo
6 mo
1 y
>5
>7.5
>10
>20
1 mo
3 mo
6 mo
1 y
5
7.5
10
20
1 mo
3 mo
6 mo
1 y
>5
>7.5
>10
>20
1 mo
3 mo
6 mo
1 y
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Table 2. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition clinical characteristics tha e clinician can obtain and document
to support a diagnosis of malnutritiona (continued)
Clinical characteristicb
Malnutrition in the
Context of Acute
Illness or Injury
Malnutrition in
the Context of
Chronic Illness
Malnutrition in the
Context of Social or
Environmental
Circumstances
Moderatec Severed Moderate Severe M rate Severe
(3) Body fat: Loss of subcutaneous
fat (eg, orbital, triceps, fat
overlying the ribs).
Mild Moderate Mild Severe M Severe
(4) Muscle mass: Muscle loss (eg,
wasting of the temples, clavicles,
shoulders, interosseous muscles,
scapula, thigh, and calf).
Mild Moderate Mild Severe M Severe
(5) Fluid accumulation: The clinician
may evaluate generalized or
localized fluid accumulation evident
on examination (extremities, vulvar/
scrotal edema, or ascites). Weight
loss is often masked by generalized
fluid retention (edema), and weight
gain may be observed.
Mild Moderate to severe Mild Severe M Severe
(6) Reduced grip strength: Consult
normative standards supplied by
the manufacturer of the
measurement device.
NAe Measurably reduced NA Measurably reduced NA Measurably reduced
aAdapted with permission from White and colleagues.11 Height and weight should be measured rather than estimated to determine body mass index. Usual weight should be obtained to d ine the percentage and to determine the significance
of weight loss. Basic indicators of nutrition status such as body weight, weight change, and appetite may improve substantively with refeeding in the absence of inflammation. Refeeding r nutrition support may stabilize but not significantly
improve nutrition parameters in the presence of inflammation. The National Center for Health Statistics defines chronic as a disease/condition lasting �3 months. Serum proteins such as s albumin or prealbumin are not included as defining
characteristics of malnutrition because recent evidence analysis shows that serum levels of these proteins do not change in response to changes in nutrient intake.
bA minimum of 2 of the 6 characteristics is recommended for diagnosis of either severe or nonsevere malnutrition.
cThe International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (ICD-9) code for moderate malnutrition is 263.0.
dThe International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (ICD-9) code for severe malnutrition is 262.0.
eNA¼not applicable.
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Practices
1. Screen every admitted patient for malnutrition, regardless of physical appearance
2. Make every effort to ensure that patients receive all ENa or PNb as prescribed to maximize benefit
3. Develop procedures to provide ONSc in between meals or with medication administration to increase overall energy and
nutrient intake
4. Create a focused meal time and supportive meal-time environment
5. Take notice of patient meal consumption
� Be vigilant to the amount of food eaten
� Sharing findings among the team (eg, during team huddles) facilitates development of a targeted nutritional plan
6. Stay alert to missed meals
� Develop procedures to provide patients with meals at “off times” if patient was not available or under a restricted diet
at the time of meal delivery
7. Avoid disconnecting EN or PN for patient repositioning, ambulation, travel, or procedures
8. Consider managing symptoms of gastrointestinal distress while continuing to administer POd diet or EN
� Nutrients may be administered while the source of distress is being identified and treated
9. Remain mindful of “holds” on PO diets or EN relative to procedures
� Take action to reduce the amount of time that a patient’s intake is restricted
10. Identify medications and disease conditions that interfere with nutrient absorption
� Develop plans to minimize the impact
aEN¼enteral nutrition by tube feeding methods.
bPN¼parenteral nutrition.
cONS¼oral nutrition supplements.
dPO¼per oral.
Figure 6. Practices to support implementation of nutrition intervention.
FROM THE ACADEMY
12
� Unless specific contraindications
exist, prompt nutrition interven-
tion for all malnourished patients
must be a high priority. Patients
whose nutrition status is identi-
fied as at risk through screening
must be fed within 24 hours by
nurses while awaiting a nutrition
consult, unless contraindicated.
Examples of immediate nutrition
interventions can include modifi-
cations to diet, assistance with
ordering and eating meals, initia-
tion of calorie counts, and/or
addition of ONS. In many cases,
establishing automated processes
that trigger upon a positive
screening will best accomplish
rapid intervention (eg, prompting
by the EHR to place a diet order).
� Standard practices to maximize
nutrient consumption must be
adopted. Figure 6 lists some
practical approaches to support
optimal nutrition. In some cases,
it is as simple as staying alert
to missed or poorly consumed
meals and communicating such
events to the dietitian so that
34 JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF NUTRITIO
appropriate adjustments are
made.
� Actual consumption must be
monitored and intervention ad-
justed as appropriate. Clinicians
must adhere closely to the doc-
umented nutrition care plan and
document success or failure in
the daily medical record. Results
of watchful monitoring inform
necessary changes to the nutrition
care plan so that short- and
long-term goals can be achieved.
For example, incomplete con-
sumption of items on the meal
tray must prompt the nurse to
have adiscussionwith the patient,
and, depending on the severity of
the intake deficit, underlying
nutritional status, and other clin-
ical issues, to call a nutrition
huddle.
Principle 5: Communicate
Nutrition Care Plans
All aspects of a patient’s nutrition care
plan, including serial assessment and
treatment goals, must be carefully
N AND DIETETICS
documented in the EHR, regularly
updated, and effectively communicated
to all health care providers (Figure 3).
This will allow informed engagement
by all providers and continuity of
treatment if the patient is transferred
to another care setting. In addition,
accurate and thorough documentation
is essential for proper disease coding.58
For example, prior to 2012, only severe
malnutrition could be coded as a
complicating condition with a primary
diagnosis. However, as of October 2012,
mild or moderate malnutrition can
now be coded as a complicating con-
dition.59 In practice, however, proper
documentation and communication do
not always occur. Most often, nutrition
status and progress are not adequately
documented in the medical record,
making it difficult to determine when
and if patients are consuming food and
supplements. In addition, nutrition
standard operating procedures and
EHR-triggered care are often lacking in
the hospital, and nutrition care plans
and medical conditions are poorly
communicated to post-acute facilities
and primary care physicians.
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
FROM THE ACADEMY
The Alliance recommends the
following strategies to improve docu-
mentation and communication of the
patient’s nutrition care plan, including
leveraging the various forms of EHR
systems now routine in most hospitals.
� Nutrition care must be formally
documented via the central area
on the medical record or in the
EHR with the following compo-
nents: (1) nutrition screening
results; (2) comprehensive nu-
trition assessment data, including
those obtained from a nutrition-
focused physical assessment;
(3) nutrition diagnosis; (4)
nutrient�medication interactions
and diagnosis-related alterations
in requirements; (5) nutrition in-
tervention(s) ordered and plan-
ned goals; (6) dietary intake
pattern, including percentage of
food consumed with each meal
and consumption of any ordered
ONS; and (7) monitoring and
evaluation plan with specific
indices and timeframe for re-
assessment.
� Hospitals must create and
maintain standardized policies,
procedures, and EHR-automated
triggers relevant to nutrition,
including nutrition-related and
specific diet order sets and pro-
tocols in the hospital’s EHR (eg,
algorithms for initiating ONS, EN
and PN orders).
� Nutrition care plan documenta-
tion must be included in the
discharge summary to ensure
that post-acute facilities/clini-
cians fully understand all aspects
of the nutrition care plan,
including goals, intervention,
necessary resources, monitoring,
and evaluation.
Principle 6: Develop a
Comprehensive Discharge
Nutrition Care and Education
Plan
A comprehensive, systematic approach
to managing nutrition from admission
through discharge and beyond is
needed to consistently improve quality
of care (Figure 3). The risk always ex-
ists that nutrition goals achieved in
the inpatient setting may be lost if
the continuity of care is not adequately
addressed at the time of discharge.7,60
In practice, patients and family
September 2013 Volume 113 Number 9
members/caregivers are rarely edu-
cated adequately on nutrition care by
the hospital team.61 Moreover, patient
adherence to nutrition orders during
and following a hospital stay is often
poor, and not all physicians are familiar
with the proper elements of a dis-
charge nutrition care plan. Failing to
address these challenges could result
in nutrition care shortcomings at one
of the most vulnerable stages in a pa-
tient’s recovery.
To ensure continuity of care, systems
must be put in place to provide pa-
tients, family members, and caregivers
with nutrition education and a com-
prehensive post-hospitalization nutri-
tion care plan. Toward this end,
the Alliance makes the following
recommendations:
� Nutrition must be a component
of all clinicians’ conversations
with patients and their family/
caregivers.
� The patient’s nutrition status,
nutrition recommendations and
other interventions (eg, ONS,
vitamin and mineral supple-
ments, and access to food), and
the post-discharge nutrition care
plan must be explained by the
clinical care team throughout
the inpatient stay and docu-
mented in the EHR.
� Follow-up nutrition assessment
and education, combined with
specific follow-up appointment
information must be provided to
the patient and/or caregiver at
time of discharge.
� Hospitals must develop clear,
standardized, written instruc-
tions for nutrition care at home,
including the rationale for and
details on diet instruction and
any recommended ONS, vitamin
and/or mineral supplements that
can be given to the patient and
his or her caregiver upon hospi-
tal discharge.
� Nurses who manage patient
transitions at discharge must
prioritize nutrition within the
care plan. Post-hospitalization
phone calls must be adapted to
include questions about dietary
intake, weight change, and ac-
cess to food with concerns
brought to the dietitian’s atten-
tion. Dietitians should be used to
manage post-hospital transitions
JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY
for patients that have malnutri-
tion as a primary or secondary
diagnosis. Ensuring nutrition
care is part of the transition to
home is a key step in reducing
hospital readmissions.
CONCLUSIONS
With the changing health care envi-
ronment, quality patient care and cost
containment are of utmost importance.
Early and automated nutrition inter-
vention coupled with clinician collab-
oration is critical in remediating the
issue of malnutrition in hospitals and
has a strong potential to improve pa-
tient care and reduce hospital costs.
Successful management of hospital
malnutrition requires an interdisci-
plinary team approach and leadership
that fosters open communication
among disciplines. To be successful, all
members of the health care team must
understand the importance of nutrition
care in improving patient outcomes
and the financial impact of failing to
address this problem. Processes must
be put into place to ensure that
appropriate nutrition intervention is
provided and patients’ nutrition status
is routinely monitored. Finally, addi-
tional evidence quantifying the value of
nutrition care must be assessed
through broad research efforts, ranging
from outcomes research to prospective
randomized controlled clinical trials.
Funding for these initiatives is needed
from institutional, federal, foundation,
and industry sources. Without ques-
tion, nutrition care must be made a
high priority and systematized in US
hospitals.
This article is a call to action from the
Alliance, challenging hospital-based
clinicians to incorporate the proposed
principles to evoke meaningful im-
provement in nutrition care within
their institutions. This call marks a step
change in efforts to date to improve
nutrition among hospitalized patients.
For the first time, it unites professional
organizations in a common pursuit to
raise awareness about the problem
of hospital malnutrition and make
meaningful progress toward early
nutrition intervention and improved
hospital treatment practices with the
ultimate goal of improving quality of
care and reducing costs. To accomplish
this will require interdisciplinary
collaboration by dietitians, nurses, and
OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1235
FROM THE ACADEMY
physicians throughout the continuum
of care so that patients receive excel-
lent nutrition care in the hospital and
after discharge.
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Nutr. 2005;24(1):75-82.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
K. A. Tappenden is Kraft Foods Human Nutrition Endowed Professor, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL (The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics). B. Quatrara is a clinical nurse specialist, University of Virginia Health
System, Charlottesville, VA (Academy of Medical-Surgical Nurses). M. L. Parkhurst is an associate professor of medicine, University of Kansas
Medical Center, Kansas City, KS (Society of Hospital Medicine). A. M. Malone is a nutrition support dietitian, Mt Carmel West Hospital, Columbus,
OH (American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition). G. Fanjiang is Vice President, Medical Affairs, Abbott Nutrition, Columbus, OH. T. R.
Ziegler is a professor of medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (Society of Hospital Medicine).
Address correspondence to: Kelly A. Tappenden, PhD, RD, FASPEN, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 443 Bevier Hall, 905 South Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801. E-mail: [email protected]
STATEMENT OF POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST
K. A. Tappenden, B. Quatrara, M. L. Parkhurst, T.R. Ziegler, and A. M. Malone are members of the Steering Committee of the Alliance to Advance
Patient Nutrition who have been chosen by the professional organizations they represent and reimbursed for Alliance-related expenses. Abbott
Nutrition has provided funding to the member organizations of the Alliance and to Marithea Goberville, PhD, of Science Author, Inc, for writing
assistance.
FUNDING/SUPPORT
There is no funding to disclose.
MY OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS 1237
- Critical Role of Nutrition in Improving Quality of Care: An Interdisciplinary Call to Action to Address Adult Hospital Maln …
- Burden of Hospital Malnutrition
- Impact of Nutrition Intervention on Key Outcomes
- Clinical Complications
- Length of Stay
- Readmissions
- Mortality
- Alliance Nutrition Care Recommendations
- Principle 1: Create an Institutional Culture Where All Stakeholders Value Nutrition
- Principle 2: Redefine Clinicians’ Roles to Include Nutrition Care
- Principle 3: Recognize and Diagnose All Malnourished Patients and Those at Risk
- Screening
- Assessment and Diagnosis
- Principle 4: Rapidly Implement Comprehensive Nutrition Interventions and Continued Monitoring
- Principle 5: Communicate Nutrition Care Plans
- Principle 6: Develop a Comprehensive Discharge Nutrition Care and Education Plan
- Conclusions
- References
